Ballet of the Enlightenment

Ballet is a form of dance that originally developed in the 15^th and 16^th century. It was originally started during the Italian renaissance, but it was later improved upon by the French. The French kings Louis XIII and Louis XIV were both very fond of the style, and would often watch their court perform, or even sometimes take part themselves. In the beginning, it was mostly performed by members of the king’s court, with a few professional dancers thrown into the mix as well. Ballet slowly became integrated into opera as well and eventually started to replace it. However ballet also evolved into ballet d’action, which combined the dancing style with a type of mime, so they were able to tell a story without words. It was restricted only to the mot elite sector of society and for the most part only the nobility was able to participate.

When ballet first started, only men were allowed to participate. It was not until 1681 that the first woman was allowed to become a professional ballerina. Gradually other female dancers joined her and soon the women were earning the same level of acclaim as the men. It was a small step toward gender equality, but it signified a cultural change happening during the period of the enlightenment. Women were finally being judged on par with men. They were seen almost as equal in some circles. It is by no means far to say, that this view was shared in all parts of society, but it was a huge step in the rising power of women, even if it was only by a small sector of society. The evolution of ballet also came to represent the changing focus in art. Art was no longer just an exultation of the gods. It had become deeper and in some ways simpler and more connected to humanity. Adam Smith was of the opinion that ballet did not require a story, only the movement itself. This change in focus mimicked the changes taking place in paintings as well at the time. The paintings no longer focused on bible references, but now focus of everyday human lives. The painters even started incorporating movement into the paintings.

This style of dance that started in the Enlightenment is still being danced today. Many people attribute this legacy to its connection with its early roots. Even as it evolves and shifts there are always companies that practice the original way of dancing that was seen during the enlightenment. However, it is no longer just a past time that is restricted to the nobility; it is available to all parts of society. It represents the enlightenment not only because it is so connected to it origins in that time period, but also because it is constantly changing and evolving to fit with the changing times.

Enlightenment Novels

 Voltaire's Candide, a complete satire of almost everyone in Europe, shows how the hero's travels teach him about different philosophies.

Novels from the sixteenth to nineteenth century were important because they explored issues that had not been discussed before. Novels, being fictional, could question authority and broach subjects previously deemed inappropriate. They exemplified the spirit of the Enlightenment because they introduced new ways of thinking about society and one's relationship with society; novels helped raise the woman question by championing their female protagonists, and many Enlightenment novels were written by women as well. Even some male authors were famous for their "feminine" voices, this attracted readers.

 Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte is an example of a novel written by a woman starring a strong female protagonist (1847)

The main reason for the novel's rise in popularity was because of its "subversive potential," that is, its ability make people question authority, society. Some of the earliest novelists even referred to their works as "secret histories," implying that they revealed an untold history, what actually happened in castles and on the battlefield. Novels could explore a character's psychology and motives in a way not other form of literature had done before. This excited the public and people became obsessed with specific characters, writing letters to the authors advising them what to have them do next. This may be similar to the influence of the media in today's popular fiction.

Of the many different types of enlightenment novels, English "letter novels" probably captured the feelings of each character the most. They had international appeal because of their accessibility and because readers enjoyed getting to know each character. Memoir novels were another popular form of novel, first introduced in the seventeenth century by mostly female writers. Memoirs, both fiction and non-fiction, could show what influenced the author to do certain things. They often went against sentimentalism and showed that finances and the idea of wealth, for example, had the power to completely take hold of a character's life as opposed to passion or emotions.

The first English translation of One Thousand and One Nights, a collection of mostly Middle Eastern and Indian folk stories, appeared in 1706. 

Images:
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Salons during the Age of Enlightenment (by James and Jeremy

During the Enlightenment period, the idea of salons grew from just social gatherings with pleasures such as nude women, to informal meetings with philosophers sharing ideas with one another. Although some salons meetings occurred in upper middle class locations, the idea of the salon was mostly centered around the upper class. Even more importantly, some women were the leaders of salons, and were named hostesses. Previously, women had no real role in society and served just for the pleasures of men. While elements of previous views of women still reigned in the Enlightenment, women were able to gain fame and usefulness through leading salons. As philosophers and thinkers composed essays and critiques of society, women went home and began to develop questions of their own regarding their role in society. Men, understandingly, grew jealous and resentful of the growing importance of their wives.

Salons, however, did not only play a role in empowering women in society. In fact, most salons still represented the majority of both Enlightenment fundamentals and beliefs. For example, the Enlightenment showed a divergence from religiously explained phenomenons to logical and proven evidence for the same events. In salons, many of these new methods of explanation were shared and critiqued by other thinkers of the time period. Women would first gather a large amount of philosophers into a home where ideas could be freely discussed. Next, each philosopher would discuss his/her idea with the group before publication. Through discussing their thoughts with other philosophers before they presented their idea to the public, philosophers were able to change and elaborate on their own ideology according to society’s existing beliefs. Therefore, many logical explanations for natural occurrences were released as a result of salons during the Enlightenment.

Although the idea of this type of salon lasted during the Enlightenment, many of its effects still impact society today in the modern world. It can be argued now that women now have an almost to equal or equal importance in society as men do. The prospect of this would have been insane had men heard of it back during the age of Enlightenment. Also, the idea of philosophical questioning has been included in modern

universities and institutions. Back in the Enlightenment, universities were not allowed to teach logic and other methods that disproved religious and fundamental ideas. Universites were run by the church and anything questioning God’s involvement in the world was strictly prohibited.

Salons served a strong purpose during the Age of Enlightenment. Without set places where philosophes and other intellectuals could meet and express their ideas with one another, some of the newly found intellectual discoveries from the Age of Enlightenment may have taken years longer to become open to the public. The encyclopedia, for example could not have been created without a cultivation of ideas, most likely through the use of salons as meeting areas. The Encyclopedia sold out extremely fast, as it described all types of activities that were relevant and useful to the public. Salons played the important role of blending and cultivating intellectual discoveries during the Age of Enlightenment.

Modern Theater: A Product of the Enlightenment

Modern Theater: A Product of the Enlightenment

By Sid Thakur and George Vo

The Enlightenment brought around a series of major social reforms. Among some of the most prominent changes were in modern theater. Theater was revolutionized and was a public domain for new ideas and reforms.

Theater during the Age of Enlightenment was largely based on Neoclassicism, the revival of classical, predominantly Greek, styles.  Standard plays in this era had to conform to a variety of strict rules derived from ancient Greek structures.  One of the most prominent of these was that plays had to have very limited setting changes.  Aristotle noted that plays should be unified in place, time, and action, and should not take place over more than a day, leading to the Neoclassical standard of five act plays.  Another aspect that was stressed was that everyone receives the fate they deserve based on their actions.  Characters who make immoral decisions in the play are always punished, while the heroes are rewarded.  Along with these trends in plot, aesthetic changes were made as well.  The immersion of the audience into the stories’ setting was another important feature.  Theaters were redesigned to create depth and include perspective, and actors costumes that were historically accurate.

Moliere in classical dress

One notable change in this new, enlightened world of theater was the presence of women.  Up until the mid-seventeenth century, women had not been allowed to participate in theatrical productions because it was believed that they would not be able to remember their lines and that it would cloud their minds.  Young boys and men had previously played even female roles.  The acceptance of women into the realm of the theater exemplifies the spirit of the Age of Enlightenment.  Another change from the original classical theater was that plays became more political.  It was common for politicians to use performances to gain support for their campaigns.  Marquis de Mirabeau, a politician, created the play, Assemblée Fédérative, in which he mocked his political opponents and promoted himself.

Plays in the Enlightenment displayed radical new ideas which helped revolutionize society. In 1791, the Chapelier Law was passed by the National Assembly during the beginning of the French Revolution. The law gave freedom to theatres. Theaters could now function without governmental interference or censorship. Shortly after, many theaters appeared in France. From 1791 to 1792, Paris went from fourteen to thirty five theaters. The Chapelier gave the power of censorship to the general public instead of political leaders. The theater became a place of new ideas and revolutions. Olympe de Gouges (1748 – 1793) was a French playwright and political activist. She wrote plays featuring feminist and abolitionist ideas.Olympe argued against the unjust treatment of natives in European colonies. She is well known for her advocation of equal gender rights in France. The theater served as an outlet for her to spread her ideas and reforms to a wider audience.

The ancient Greek Theater of Dionysus

Several individuals helped in the Enlightenment revolution of theater. George Lillo was a British playwright. He introduced the new genre of plays known as domestic tragedy, also known as bourgeois tragedy. Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov, a Russian playwright, introduced classical theater to Russia. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing,  ( 1729 - 1781),was a German dramatist and critic. He helped free German drama from the influence of classical and French models and wrote plays of lasting importance. Lessing’s critical essays combated conservative dogmatism and cant while affirming religious and intellectual tolerance and the unbiased search for truth. Moliere (1622-1673) was also a very influential playwright at the time. He wrote comedies about social criticism. Similar to Moliere, Voltaire wrote satires about powerful figures and the church, while advocating free speech and thought. The playwrights of the Enlightenment era helped influence public reform.

Public Libraries by Jia and Julia

One countless and most notable products of the Enlightenment was the public library.  Becoming the tool of influential authors, a meeting place for the educated, and a start of transformation, the public library captured the essence of the age.  During the Enlightenment, public libraries served as a vehicle for knowledge helping to bring change through the spread of information and ideas.

http://searchingformodernworld.blogspot.com/2013/02/public-libraries_6.html

The increasing number of public library and the consolidation of knowledge enabled greater accessibility of information.  Since 17th Century, the public library played a key role in spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment.  During the Enlightenment, libraries became larger, grander, and open to the public, such as French National Library built by Étienne-Louis Boullée in 1785. The design for the main reading room featured a vast ceiling.  The shelving arrangement was modern: books organised by category covered the walls.  In contrast to the medieval library where people could only read in the certain locations, visitors were free to wander about the library and converse. A rise in literacy and publication caused this new design for libraries. Although libraries, such as Bibliothèque Mazarine, once mainly carried books about religion and philosophy, they began to collect books about every subject.  This interest in other subjects let to the invention of Encyclopedia by Diderot.  This collection of knowledge was essentially a “universal library.”  As the expression “architecture parlante” described, the enlightenment was a vision of universal library with its universal knowledge.

http://news.lib.uchicago.edu/blog/2011/04/26/the-enlightenment-and-grand-library-design/

The concept of the public library played to interests of many because the purpose of a public library is simply to provide people with knowledge.  The purpose of a book is to not only spread knowledge, but to preserve knowledge.  The library could appeal to those who opposed change because it provided the public with books about the past.  Public libraries could contain books that explained all prior beliefs and supported a lack of change.  On the other hand, libraries also provided the public with reasons for change.  Many ideas can be struck down with logic and reasoning.  With the work of scientists open for the public to read, the literate could not be fooled so easily by those resisting change.  In addition to scientists, most of the philosophes were authors and expressed their ideas through writing.  Philosophes wrote books pointing out the issues with society and outlining solutions.  Because the public library merely provided the public with ideas, it did not support any one specific group.

The openness of public library contributed to the emergence of inner self-discipline.  The libraries were constructed in such a way that the minority could watch the majority. Many public institutions including public library during Enlightenment were designed as panopticons; the majority were watch by a minority stationed in the center. This idea was designed by British philosopher Jeremy Bentham 1791. With this design, the minority could not watch the majority at all times, but the majority could not know whether or not they were being watched.  Those visiting the library had to adapt their lives with the constant thought of surveillance. This kind of design also connected to the inner self-disciplining which is another feature of modernity. Supervision and surveillance were important to ensure that books were not stolen from the open shelves.  This design not only protected the library, but helped adjust the behavior of people.

http://searchingformodernworld.blogspot.com/2013/02/public-libraries_6.html

The public library assisted in many transitions by providing the public with new ideas.  One of the largest characteristics of the enlightenment and modernity was that ideas are not set in stone.  Ideas are constantly proven and disproven and standards change constantly.  This age is and was the time of transitions.  For a transition to occur the public has to adapt to a new idea.  Before the public accepts an idea, they have to find a way to learn about the idea or hear about it in the first place.  Before the internet, ideas had to spread through books.  The existence of the public library enabled the public to access new ideas.  Authors became more influential.  The public library helped the enlightenment and modernity become the time of transition by providing one of the most important steps in the process of change.

Neoclassical Architecture

The term "Neoclassical Architecture" refers to a range of architectural styles used mainly in Northern Europe and the United States, which originated in the middle to late 1700s and the early 1800s. A reaction to the more florid Rococo styles before it, these styles reflect a rediscovery of the geometric and symmetrical Greek and Roman styles by the Northern Europeans, who took these designs and mimicked them in their home countries. Especially important in this revolutionary rediscovery is the Grand Tour, in which wealthy Northern Europeans began taking extensive tours of Southern Europe. While in the South, tourists explored Athens, Rome, and the newly uncovered sites at Herculaneum and Pompeii. There they came into contact with ancient buildings constructed with classical architecture. The returning tourists brought back the old ideas to the north. Perhaps the most famous of these tourists is Robert Adam, who earns credit for essentially creating neoclassicism through his buildings in England and his writings, which reached much of the Western world.

The architectural rebirth of Classical architecture into Neoclassical architecture during the enlightenment reflects the philosophical discoveries and inquiries during the enlightenment. The invention of Neoclassical architecture exemplifies a combination of the artistic and philosophical appetites of enlightenment thinkers. As visionaries called into question systems of power and government, people looked to the past for answers. The great minds behind things like the American revolution found philosophical inspiration, much of which was transferred to artistic flare. Thomas Jefferson’s claim of being an Epicurean is easily compatible with the rebirth of ancient Roman and Greek influences. As people dug into the philosophies of Roman thinkers, they also found a great respect for Roman and Greek culture in its entirety. This new found acceptance and reverence is what we see in the rebirth of classical architecture in the enlightenment: an expression of curiosity, inquisition, respect, and acceptance.

    The architectural styles created during the Enlightenment still exist today and can be seen throughout the western world. Perhaps the most relevant example to Americans like ourselves is American Neoclassicism, or the Federal Style, In the United States' early years, architects designing government buildings relied heavily on the Neoclassical style and inspired the builders of many private homes to do the same . Examples of the include the Lincoln memorial, the White House, and the Capitol.  The Federal style focuses on perfect symmetry, straight lines, and exterior columns derived from the buildings of the Roman Republic; The United State’s government hoped to emulate the Republic, and so architects fittingly drew from architectural styles of ancient Rome (demonstrated here by the Parthenon). Known as the Imperial style in France due to its use by Emperor Napoleon I, this style also presents itself in famous Parisian buildings like the Arc de Triomphe. To this day architects continue to employ the Neoclassical styles popularized during the Enlightenment in grand public works and private private homes.

Concerts

Kristine Stanners

The Enlightenment Period was like a supernova bursting from the darkness of the middle ages.  An expanding middle class demanded more from society and contributed to the rapid development in the artistic scene. Public concerts helped musicians reach a wider audience as well as increasing their incomes, and thus allowing them more time to spend on their music.  Concerts which were once small and a luxury of the wealthy became accessible to most of society. This astonishing transformation is consistent with the widespread embracement of new ideas and trends in the Enlightenment Era which swept over western civilization.  In many respects the demand for radically new music and concerts during the Enlightenment set the stage for future artist to freely and openly express and share their music publicly. The music industry started booming as people started composing non traditional melodies and songs.  It seems remarkably similar to the 1960s when the West experienced a cultural revolution in music with new sounds and large concerts by bands such as The Beatles, Rolling Stones, and Janis Joplin.

The concerts during the Enlightenment period were consistent and reflective of the spirit of the time.  All of society was in transformation and questioning the traditional thinking of the past. The improving economy and greater urbanization brought more people together and the middle-class expanded tremendously.  The middle-class consisted of educated people such as doctors, lawyers, and tradesmen and soon became more influential as the hierarchy of  the nobles became less extreme.  In fact the nobility and middle-class came together in new “learned societies” or clubs such as the Freemasons and worked together to think of ways to improve all of society.  This resulted in broad and open thinking like The Social Contract of Jean-Jacques Rousseau,which he expresses his theory of the ideal community without an overpowering political authority. The openness of his thinking is similar to the development of concerts and diverse music.  Musician such as Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frederick Handel, Beethoven and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart flourished during this time.  Mozart is an amazing example of artistic production having composed 600 works including 41 symphonies and 22 operas such as The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, and The Magic Flute all within his extremely short 35 year life!  Such productions were made available to the masses as symphonies expanded and more people had time to enjoy the wonderful world of music in live concerts.  The new, more open, and less hierarchical society burst with music.  

The Enlightenment paved a way for music to be shared and practiced among individuals. Public concerts prospered in 1760s during the height of the Enlightenment. As mentioned above, one of the many famous artists discovered during this time was a child prodigy, Wolfgang Mozart.
Mozart was a child at the time but age didn’t prohibit him from playing in a three and a half year concert tour. Age was no longer an issue in the music business.  People focused more on the sound being produced.  The new music that was being produced by Mozart was so innovative.  It foreshadowed the cultural revolution in the West during the 1960’s when groups like The Beatles revolutionized music in the same way Mozart did.  Additionally, being a musician was no longer limited to males.  Like the 1760’s, women participated more in music and were accepted in the mainstream.  Janis Joplin was a hit and society accepted and demanded more participation in music and concerts by women.   


The Enlightenment was an ideal period for music expansion as society became more accepting and seeked new sounds and excitement.  Mozart and his counterparts provided it then and The Beatles and their contemporaries expanded it in the 1960’s.

 

What's Brewing?

Max Yun

Claire Walton

What's Brewing?

How The Enlightenment Depended on Coffee

Cafe Procope in Paris was visited by many philosophes and became a central area for the advancement of the Enlightenment. Because of its location, this cafe was a frequent stop for famous actors, writers, and musicians who discussed their ideas. Some of these famous people were Voltaire, Rousseau, Benjamin Franklin, and Diderot. In fact, Diderot and D’Alembert constructed their Encyclopédie here. Due to its attractiveness and popularity, Cafe Procope was very important for the spread of Enlightenment ideas.

The emergence of Europe’s coffeehouses can be attributed to the Turks. In 1529, the Ottoman Empire was expanding west until its army was defeated by the Venetians in the 1683 Battle of Vienna. The Turks left behind many bags of coffee, which were claimed by Franz Georg Kolschitzky, a Ukrainian nobleman, trader, and soldier. He introduced the idea of filtering coffee beans, and opened Europe’s first coffeehouse. In Vienna today, he remains a popular folk hero. In the world, his name is unknown, but his work is ubiquitous.

After coffeehouses emerged in Europe, they became a common place for the spread of Enlightenment ideas. Because coffee was popular and it was cheap for groups to gather in a coffeehouse (admission only cost one penny), many meetings were held within them and all the recent news could spread quickly. Anybody with money and decent clothes could enter to smoke, drink, read newsletters, and talk with people. Messengers and spies also visited the coffeehouses to give information, gain information, or distribute gazettes and newspapers. With the rising popularity of new philosophies and ideas, people were bound to discuss the Enlightenment within a coffeehouse. Coffeehouses were key to spreading the Enlightenment’s core values to the public. 

Additionally, coffee houses represented the irony associated with the Enlightenment. Europeans enjoyed expressing their ideas on freedom and human rights, while sipping their coffee enabled by slavery and imported from oppressed and colonized places. The wealth of Europeans, like the success of Coffeehouses, was built on slavery and their class system. Ideas of abolition of slavery and the foundation of natural rights fostered in a coffeehouse, an institution resulting from slavery and oppression. 

Coffeehouses provided an alternative to the dark and dreary interiors of bars. As historian Mark Pendergrast says in his work, “Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World”, coffee allowed “Western civilization [to sober] up”. Both the American and French revolution were strategized in coffeehouses. Additionally, coffeehouses obviously promoted the intake of coffee. Following the Boston Tea Party, Americans turned toward coffee because “drinking tea had become unpatriotic,” promoting coffeehouses and the spread of ideas. 

In terms of our modern world, Starbucks has 10,924 total U.S. stores and 17,572 stores worldwide, operating in 55 different countries. Coffeehouses allowed the Enlightenment to thrive, and the expansion of the Enlightenment in turn allowed the coffeehouse industry to grow. Ask one of Starbuck’s 151,000 employees, or anyone who has ever purchased a cup of joe from a Starbuck’s around the corner, how coffeehouses have affected our modern world and everyday life.

Without coffeehouses, the Enlightenment would not have had as great an impact as it did.

Hospitals in the Enlightenment

In the Age of the Enlightenment, many major steps were taken towards a more "modern" society. One of the most important of these steps is the improvement and advances made in European hospitals.

In general, hospitals became more advanced and modernized. Before, hospitals were merely places of poor refuge for the ill and doctors only tried to "save the souls" of their patients, with less attention being given to actual cures. During the Age of the Enlightenment, hospitals became places of scientific and medical prowess where doctors and surgeons strove to discover new medicines and cures using the most  modern practices. For the first time, physicians realized that disease could be controlled or even prevented through things like diet and lifestyle. Patients were segregated into different sections according to their ailments. Practitioners discovered new medicines through trials and statistical analyses. The concept of hygiene and ventilation were discovered and implemented. Many hospitals also became places of education, where skilled practitioners could teach and pass down their knowledge. Also, many charity hospitals opened that dispensed medicine and care to the poor.

The Foundling Hospital, London

One major type of hospitals were the foundling hospitals. These hospitals were dedicated to taking in and caring for orphans, most often infants. These hospitals were founded and mostly run by women, a first for medical institutions. In many cases they reduced the rate of infanticide, especially in the case of illegitimate children, which had become a major problem in the Enlightenment period. The Foundling Hospital in London was a particularly large hospital. The Hospital admitted all children under the age of twelve months and the children were cared for by wet nurses. When they were old enough they became apprentices in a chosen field and from then on were mostly independent, except for some minor financial aid as adults.

Guy's Hospital, London

The radical advancements made during the Age of Enlightenment were crucial to the modernization of medical care and also reflected the attitudes of the Enlightenment. Many of the developments that occurred during the Age of the Enlightenment are still in use today. Also, the advancements made during this time reflected the values and spirit of the Enlightenment. Before, most hospitals had only served to cure the sick and had no interest in discovering new things. However, during the Enlightenment, much attention and emphasis was directed to scientific pursuits and the gain of knowledge with major effects. Doctors began to work to discover newer, more "modern" methods of curing patients. More and more people had the chance to be educated about medicine, surgery, and anatomy through lectures and even museums. Hospitals became a place of discovery, innovation, and education.

Thus, the Enlightenment profoundly affected the development of hospitals and allowed the medical systems to take long strides toward the modern systems we use today.